General Chemistry Manual
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Laboratory Exercises
Glossary
Abscissa: In a coordinate system, the abscissa refers to the horizontal or x-axis value of a point. It represents the distance of a point from the y-axis.
Absolute Zero: Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature in the Kelvin scale, which is equal to 0 Kelvin (K) or -273.15 degrees Celsius (°C). At absolute zero, molecular motion nearly ceases, and all substances have their minimum possible thermal energy.
Accuracy: Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness between the measured or calculated value and the true or accepted value of a quantity. It indicates how well an experimental or calculated result represents the actual value.
Acid: An acid is a substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the solution. Acids typically have a sour taste and can react with metals to produce hydrogen gas and with bases to form salts.
Actual Value: The actual value refers to the true or accepted value of a quantity, often obtained from reliable and accurate measurements or established through theoretical calculations.
Analytical Balances: Analytical balances are highly precise weighing instruments used in laboratories to measure the mass of substances with a high degree of accuracy. They are designed to provide precise measurements down to a fraction of a milligram.
Anhydrous: Anhydrous refers to a substance that is completely free of water or has had its water content removed. It is often used to describe solid compounds or gases that lack water molecules.
Aqueous: Aqueous refers to a solution in which water is the solvent. It indicates that a substance is dissolved or dispersed in water.
Atomic Weight: Atomic weight is the average mass of an atom of an element, taking into account the abundance of its different isotopes. It is expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or unified atomic mass units (u).
Avogadro's Law: Avogadro's law states that, at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain an equal number of molecules. This principle forms the basis for the concept of the mole and the relationship between the volume and number of particles in a gas.
Barometric Pressure: Barometric pressure, also known as atmospheric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the Earth's atmosphere on a unit area. It is caused by the weight of the air above a given point and is commonly measured with a barometer.
Binary Compound: A binary compound is a chemical compound composed of two different elements. It can be an ionic compound, consisting of a metal and a non-metal, or a covalent compound, formed by the combination of two non-metals.
Boyle's Law: Boyle's law, also known as the Boyle-Mariotte law, states that at a constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. In other words, when the pressure on a gas increases, its volume decreases, and vice versa, as long as the temperature remains constant.
Bunsen Burner: A Bunsen burner is a common laboratory device used for heating and sterilizing substances. It consists of a metal base, a vertical tube for gas supply, and an adjustable air vent to control the flame's intensity.
Calorie: A calorie is a unit of energy commonly used in chemistry and nutrition. It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. The calorie is often used to express the energy content of food.
Calorimeter: A calorimeter is an apparatus used to measure the heat exchange that occurs during a physical or chemical process. It consists of an insulated container, a thermometer to measure temperature changes, and sometimes a stirring mechanism.
Calorimetry: Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction or physical process. It involves using a calorimeter to accurately determine the heat changes in a system.
Capillary Tube: A capillary tube is a narrow and thin tube made of glass or another material. It is commonly used in laboratories to transport small amounts of liquid through capillary action, which occurs due to the surface tension of the liquid.
Celsius: Celsius is a temperature scale commonly used in scientific and everyday contexts. On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is defined as 0 degrees Celsius (°C), and the boiling point of water is defined as 100°C at standard atmospheric pressure.
Centigrade: Centigrade is an older term used to refer to the Celsius temperature scale, where the freezing point of water is defined as 0 degrees and the boiling point as 100 degrees.
Charles' Law: Charles' law, also known as the law of volumes, states that, at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. In other words, as the temperature of a gas increases, its volume expands, and as the temperature decreases, its volume contracts, as long as the pressure remains constant.
Chemical Bonding: Chemical bonding refers to the attractive forces that hold atoms together in chemical compounds. It involves the sharing, donating, or accepting of electrons between atoms to achieve a more stable arrangement and form molecules or compounds.
Chemical Reactions: Chemical reactions are processes in which substances (reactants) undergo a transformation to form new substances (products) with different properties. Chemical reactions involve the breaking and formation of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the arrangement of atoms.
Chemistry: Chemistry is the branch of science that studies the composition, properties, structure, and transformations of matter. It explores the interactions between atoms, molecules, and compounds, as well as the energy changes that accompany chemical reactions.
Coagulation: Coagulation refers to the process of forming a coagulum or a clot. In chemistry, coagulation can occur when dispersed particles or colloids in a liquid aggregate and form larger particles that settle or clump together.
Compounds: Compounds are substances composed of two or more different elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. The elements in a compound are held together by chemical bonds, and compounds have unique properties distinct from their constituent elements.
Dalton's Atomic Theory: Dalton's atomic theory, proposed by John Dalton in the early 19th century, established the fundamental principles of modern atomic theory. It states that atoms are indivisible, indestructible, and combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.
Dalton's Law: Dalton's law of partial pressures states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each gas. Each gas behaves independently and exerts a pressure proportional to its mole fraction.
Decantation: Decantation is a separation technique that involves carefully pouring off a liquid from a solid or immiscible liquid. The solid or denser liquid settles at the bottom, and the desired liquid is removed by pouring without disturbing the sediment.
Deliquescence: Deliquescence refers to the ability of a substance to absorb moisture from the atmosphere and dissolve in the absorbed water, forming a solution. It typically occurs with highly hygroscopic substances, which can become damp or even liquefy when exposed to humid air.
Density: Density is a physical property of matter that represents the mass of a substance per unit volume. It is commonly expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) and provides information about how closely packed the particles are in a material.
Deviation: Deviation refers to the difference or departure of a value from a standard or expected value. It quantifies the amount of variation or divergence from an ideal or average value.
Diameter: Diameter is a measurement of the distance across a circular object or shape, passing through its center. It is defined as twice the radius of the circle.
Difference: Difference refers to the result obtained when one quantity is subtracted from another. It represents the numerical distance or gap between two values.
Dissolve: Dissolving refers to the process of a solid, liquid, or gas uniformly mixing with a solvent to form a solution. The solute particles disperse and become evenly distributed throughout the solvent, resulting in a homogeneous mixture.
Distillation: Distillation is a separation technique used to purify liquids or separate mixtures of liquids based on differences in their boiling points. It involves heating the mixture, collecting and condensing the vapor, and then collecting the purified liquid.
Dulong-Petit Equation: The Dulong-Petit equation, also known as the law of Dulong and Petit, relates the heat capacity of certain solid elements to their atomic weight. It states that the molar heat capacity of an element is approximately equal to 3 times the gas constant (R), which is 8.314 J/(mol·K).
Dulong-Petit Law: The Dulong-Petit law, named after Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit, states that the molar heat capacity of many solid elements is approximately equal to 3 times the gas constant (R). This law is based on the observation that specific heat capacity tends to be similar for elements in their solid form.
Efflorescence: Efflorescence refers to the process in which a solid compound loses its water of hydration when exposed to air, resulting in the formation of a powdery or crystalline residue. It typically occurs with certain salts that have a tendency to lose water molecules when in a dry environment.
Electrons: Electrons are subatomic particles that carry a negative charge. They orbit around the nucleus of an atom and are responsible for chemical bonding, electricity, and many other properties of matter.
Element: An element is a pure substance made up of atoms with the same atomic number. Elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means and are represented by unique symbols, such as H for hydrogen or O for oxygen, on the periodic table.
Empirical Formula: An empirical formula represents the simplest ratio of the atoms present in a compound. It provides the relative number of each element in a substance but may not reflect the actual arrangement or structure of the molecules.
Endothermic: Endothermic describes a process or reaction that absorbs or requires energy from its surroundings. It is characterized by a decrease in temperature and an increase in the internal energy of the system.
Energy: Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat. It exists in various forms, such as kinetic energy (associated with motion), potential energy (stored energy), thermal energy (related to temperature), and chemical energy (stored in chemical bonds).
Energy Transformation: Energy transformation refers to the conversion of energy from one form to another. It occurs in various processes and systems, such as chemical reactions, electrical circuits, and thermal processes.
Enthalpy: Enthalpy is a measure of the total heat content of a system, including its internal energy and the energy required to create or maintain its pressure and volume. It is often represented by the symbol H and is associated with heat flow during chemical reactions or physical changes.
Erlenmeyer Flask: An Erlenmeyer flask is a type of laboratory glassware with a conical shape and a narrow neck. It is commonly used for holding and mixing liquids, as the conical shape allows for easy swirling without spillage.
Error Analysis: Error analysis is the process of evaluating and quantifying the errors or uncertainties associated with experimental measurements or calculations. It involves assessing the sources of error, estimating their magnitude, and determining their impact on the final results.
Evaporate: Evaporation refers to the process by which a liquid changes into a gas or vapor at a temperature below its boiling point. It occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid exceeds the atmospheric pressure, resulting in the escape of molecules from the liquid surface.
Exothermic: Exothermic describes a process or reaction that releases or gives off energy to its surroundings, usually in the form of heat. It is characterized by an increase in temperature and a decrease in the internal energy of the system.
Experimental Value: An experimental value is a result obtained through measurements or observations during an experiment. It may differ from the accepted or theoretical value due to various factors, including experimental errors and limitations.
Exponential Notation: Exponential notation, also known as scientific notation, is a way to express numbers that are very large or very small. It involves writing a number as a product of a decimal between 1 and 10 and a power of 10.
Extraction: Extraction is a process used to separate a desired substance or component from a mixture using a solvent. It takes advantage of differences in solubility, allowing the targeted substance to dissolve in the solvent, while other components remain insoluble.
Filtration: Filtration is a separation technique used to separate solid particles from a liquid or gas by passing the mixture through a filter medium. The filter traps the solid particles, allowing the liquid or gas to pass through.
Freezing Point: The freezing point is the temperature at which a substance transitions from its liquid phase to its solid phase at a given pressure. It is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium.
Fusion: Fusion refers to the process of a substance changing from a solid to a liquid state as a result of the absorption of heat. It is also commonly known as melting.
Gas: In the context of chemistry, a gas is a state of matter characterized by molecules or atoms that are widely separated and move freely in space. Gases have no definite shape or volume and expand to fill their container.
Gram: The gram is a unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). It is equal to one thousandth of a kilogram (1 g = 0.001 kg) and is commonly used for measuring small amounts of mass in chemistry.
Heat Capacity: Heat capacity, also known as thermal capacity, is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by a certain amount. It is a measure of the substance's ability to store thermal energy.
Heat Of Reaction: The heat of reaction, also known as the enthalpy of reaction or the heat of reaction, is the change in enthalpy that occurs during a chemical reaction under constant pressure. It represents the amount of heat energy absorbed or released by the system.
Hydrates: Hydrates are compounds that contain a specific number of water molecules chemically bound to their crystal structure. These water molecules are called water of hydration and are represented as part of the chemical formula of the hydrate.
Intermediate Temperature: Intermediate temperature refers to a range of temperatures between low and high extremes. It is a relative term and depends on the specific context or system under consideration.
International System of Units: The International System of Units (SI) is a globally recognized system of measurement used in science, industry, and everyday life. It provides a consistent set of units and standards for physical quantities, such as length, mass, time, temperature, and electric current.
Joule: The joule is the unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI). It is defined as the amount of work done or energy transferred when a force of one newton acts through a distance of one meter (1 J = 1 N·m).
Kilocalorie: The kilocalorie, often abbreviated as kcal, is a unit of energy commonly used in nutrition and chemistry. It is equal to 1,000 calories and represents the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius.
Laboratory Hood: A laboratory hood, also known as a fume hood or safety hood, is a ventilation device commonly found in laboratories. It is used to contain and remove hazardous fumes, gases, or vapors, providing a safe working environment for experiments.
Lattice Energy: Lattice energy is the energy released when ions come together to form a solid ionic compound from their separate gaseous ions. It is a measure of the strength of the ionic bonds in the crystal lattice structure.
Law of Conservation of Energy: The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only change from one form to another or be transferred between different systems. In a closed system, the total amount of energy remains constant.
Law of Definite Proportions: The law of definite proportions, also known as the law of constant composition, states that a chemical compound always contains the same elements in the same proportions by mass, regardless of its source or method of preparation.
Liquid: In the context of matter, a liquid is a state of matter characterized by particles that are close together but not rigidly arranged. Liquids have a definite volume but no fixed shape, taking the shape of their container.
Mass: Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object or substance. It is a fundamental property of matter and is usually expressed in units such as grams (g) or kilograms (kg).
Matter: Matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. It includes all substances, whether solid, liquid, or gas, that are composed of atoms, molecules, or ions.
Mean Deviation: Mean deviation is a measure of the average absolute deviation of a set of values from their mean or average. It provides a measure of the overall dispersion or spread of the data.
Mean Value: The mean value, also known as the average, is the sum of a set of values divided by the number of values. It represents a central tendency or typical value within a data set.
Melting Point: The melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes from its solid phase to its liquid phase at a given pressure. It is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium.
Meniscus: The meniscus refers to the curved surface of a liquid in a container. It is typically concave for water and other liquids that have stronger cohesive forces, and convex for liquids with weaker cohesive forces.
Metal: In chemistry, a metal is an element that tends to form positive ions (cations) and exhibits metallic properties, such as high electrical conductivity, luster, malleability, and ductility. Metals are found on the left side of the periodic table.
Metallic: Metallic refers to properties or characteristics associated with metals. It describes materials that exhibit metallic luster, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and malleability.
Molar Volume: Molar volume is the volume occupied by one mole of a substance, typically a gas, at a specified temperature and pressure. It is a useful concept in gas calculations and is dependent on the temperature and pressure conditions.
Mole: The mole is a unit used in chemistry to measure the amount of a substance. It is defined as the number of atoms, molecules, ions, or other elementary entities equal to the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12 (approximately 6.022 x 10^23 entities), known as Avogadro's number.
Molecular Weight: Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule. It is commonly expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or grams per mole (g/mol).
Molecules: Molecules are the smallest units of a compound that retain the chemical properties and composition of that compound. They are composed of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
Neutralization: Neutralization is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base that results in the formation of a salt and water. The reaction involves the transfer of protons (H+) from the acid to the base, resulting in the neutralization of their acidic and basic properties.
Nonvolatile: Nonvolatile refers to substances that do not easily evaporate or vaporize at normal temperatures and pressures. These substances have high boiling points and tend to remain in a solid or liquid state.
Ordinate: In a coordinate system, the ordinate refers to the vertical or y-axis value of a point. It represents the distance of a point from the x-axis.
Percent Error: Percent error is a measure of the accuracy of an experimental result compared to the accepted or theoretical value. It is calculated as the absolute value of the difference between the experimental value and the accepted value, divided by the accepted value, and multiplied by 100.
Percentage Yield: Percentage yield is a measure of the efficiency of a chemical reaction or process in producing the desired product. It is calculated by dividing the actual yield of the product by the theoretical yield, and then multiplying by 100.
Polar: Polar refers to a molecule or bond that has a separation of electric charge, resulting in positive and negative poles or ends. Polar molecules have an uneven distribution of electrons and exhibit dipole moments.
Precipitate: In chemistry, a precipitate refers to a solid substance that forms when two solutions are mixed together and undergo a chemical reaction. The precipitate is typically insoluble in the resulting mixture and separates from the solution.
Precision: Precision refers to the degree of repeatability or consistency in a series of measurements or observations. It indicates the closeness of the values to each other, regardless of their proximity to the true or accepted value.
Pressure: Pressure is the force exerted per unit area. In the context of gases, it refers to the force exerted by gas molecules on the walls of a container. Pressure is typically measured in units such as pascals (Pa) or atmospheres (atm).
Purification: Purification refers to the process of removing impurities or contaminants from a substance to make it pure or more pure. It involves various techniques such as filtration, distillation, crystallization, or chromatography.
Pycnometer: A pycnometer is a laboratory device used to measure the density or specific gravity of a liquid or solid. It consists of a small, precise-volume container with a stopper or capillary tube to measure the volume.
Random Errors: Random errors are variations or fluctuations in measurements or observations that occur unpredictably and without any systematic pattern. They are caused by factors such as equipment limitations, environmental conditions, or human limitations, and can be reduced by repeated measurements or statistical analysis.
Relative Deviation: Relative deviation, also known as relative error, is a measure of the average deviation of a set of values from a reference value, expressed as a percentage of the reference value. It provides a measure of the relative difference or variation in the data.
Ring Stand: A ring stand is a metal rod attached to a heavy base, often with a metal ring or clamp attached to it. It is used in laboratories to hold or support various apparatus, such as burettes, flasks, or beakers, during experiments or heating processes.
Significant Figures: Significant figures, also known as significant digits, are the digits in a number that carry meaningful information or precision. They include all non-zero digits, zeros between non-zero digits, and trailing zeros after a decimal point. Significant figures indicate the precision of a measurement or calculation result.
Slope: In mathematics and physics, slope refers to the steepness or incline of a line or curve. It represents the ratio of the vertical change (rise) to the horizontal change (run) between two points.
Solid: In the context of matter, a solid is a state of matter characterized by particles that are closely packed in a regular, ordered arrangement. Solids have a definite shape and volume and are resistant to changes in shape or volume.
Solute: A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution. It is typically present in smaller quantities and can be a solid, liquid, or gas.
Solution: A solution is a homogeneous mixture formed by dissolving one or more substances (solute) in a solvent. The solute particles are uniformly dispersed and mixed at a molecular or ionic level.
Solvent: A solvent is a substance capable of dissolving other substances to form a solution. It is typically the component present in larger quantities and provides the medium for the dissolution of the solute.
Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance, typically water. It is a dimensionless quantity that provides a measure of the relative density or heaviness of a substance.
Specific Heat: Specific heat, also known as heat capacity, is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass of a substance by one degree Celsius (or Kelvin). It is typically expressed in units of joules per gram per degree Celsius (J/g·°C).
Stoichiometry: Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions. It involves calculating the amounts of substances involved based on their balanced chemical equations.
Sublimation: Sublimation is the process in which a solid directly transitions into a gas without passing through the liquid phase. It occurs when the vapor pressure of the solid exceeds the atmospheric pressure, causing the solid to undergo a phase change.
Systematic Errors: Systematic errors are consistent or predictable errors that affect measurements or observations in a non-random manner. They are caused by factors such as faulty equipment, calibration issues, or procedural limitations and can often be corrected or minimized through adjustments or calibration.
Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. It determines the direction of heat flow and is commonly measured using a thermometer in units such as Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K).
Theoretical Yield: The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be obtained from a chemical reaction, based on stoichiometric calculations and assuming complete conversion of the limiting reactant. It serves as a reference or ideal value for comparison with the actual yield.
Thermometer: A thermometer is a device used to measure temperature. It typically consists of a long, narrow glass tube filled with a liquid, such as mercury or alcohol, that expands or contracts with temperature changes.
Top-Loading Balances: Top-loading balances are weighing instruments commonly used in laboratories and industries to measure the mass of substances. They have a weighing pan on the top and provide accurate measurements of larger masses.
Triple Beam Balance: A triple beam balance is a weighing instrument consisting of a beam with three parallel bars or beams, each with a sliding weight. It is used to measure the mass of objects and substances with a high degree of precision.
Vapor Pressure: Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapor of a substance in equilibrium with its liquid or solid phase at a given temperature. It is a measure of the tendency of molecules to escape from the liquid or solid and enter the gas phase.
Volatility: Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporize or evaporate at a given temperature and pressure. Substances with high volatility have high vapor pressures and easily transition from the liquid or solid phase to the gas phase.
Volume: Volume is a measure of the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object or substance. It is typically expressed in cubic units, such as cubic centimeters (cm³) or liters (L).